Learning+with+Style+and+skill

=Learning with Style and Skill: =

//and Study Skills Inventory and Its Use for Diagnosing and Prescribing Learning //
media type="youtube" key="GbqDFo2IBlc" height="344" width="425" align="left" Leonard W. Parker, Ed. D. and Karen L. Parker, Ed. D. Liberty University 1971 University Boulevard, Lynchburg, Virginia 24502 lwparker@liberty.edu (434) 582-7709 kparker@liberty.edu (434) 582-2195 January 15, 2007

**// Introduction //**
A Self-Calculating, Computerized Learning Styles Profile and Study Skills Inventory are described with applications for its use in diagnosing and prescribing learning according to the individual needs of the student. After completing thirty-nine items on “How I Learn and Remember Best”, six charts relating to modalities, interpersonal and leadership skills are then visible on the Learning Styles Profile (LSP). The forty-two item Study Skills Inventory (SSI) provides results on sixteen study skills. The combination of both programs provides teachers valuable information about themselves and their students for the development of effective instructional strategies and assessment techniques. Matching a student’s learning style to a variety of study methods enhances academic achievement.

//** Background **//
The more teachers know and understand learning styles diversity, the more they develop a deeper sense of responsibility for motivating and teaching their students in ways with which they are most comfortable (Beck, 2001). Beck (2001) suggests encouraging teachers to avoid only using a teaching style that reflects their preferred style and to help students to process learning using the whole brain. Teaching strategies are adaptable to both hemispheres. Students’ learning styles were identified and teachers were retrained to teach in ways that accommodated their students’ learning style preferences (Burke, 2002). For example, environmental adaptations were made such as noise vs. quiet, bright light vs. soft light, formal seating vs. informal seating. The community supported this initiative in terms of contributions of items such as beanbags and lamps. Additionally, instruction was altered to use small group strategies and active learning strategies. The initiative to match teaching styles with how students learned and remembered resulted in students’ positive attitudes toward schools. Delahoussaye (2002) compared individualized learning to a radio receiver tuning in to get the sharpest frequency. That is, the clearer the reception, the more efficient the learning. Learning time is reduced, knowledge retention is improved, and motivation to learn is increased. Thus, barriers to teaching to individual learning styles are the teacher’s rigid use of the traditional lecture, teachers who prefer to teach the way they were taught which likely matches their own learning style and learners who do not understand learning styles and who do not take responsibility for their own learning. Learners are more likely to have a greater natural interest in a subject and absorb more information if the content is delivered in a way that matches their learning style preferences. While measurements of learning styles may not be 100% accurate, at the least, awareness of learning styles is heightened. In response, teachers and students can either play to learning strengths or stretch and develop underutilized styles. While stretching students to employ various learning styles is a challenge, the struggle itself is part of learning. Learning styles are relatively stable for individuals over time, but they may change because of life experiences or type of subject matter studied. Some learners are more flexible in accommodating to different teaching styles, however, the authors believe that with sufficient incentive, most people could learn in a style other than their original learning style preference. Gordon (1998) found that while it may be true that average and above average students learn despite the teacher or the teacher’s style, other students find it more challenging to adapt to a teaching style that does not match their learning style. Thus, teacher awareness of learning styles enables teachers to develop alternate methods of instruction. The more teachers know and understand the diversity of learning styles, the more they develop a deeper sense of responsibility for motivating and teaching their students in ways with which they are most comfortable (Beck, 2001). When teachers are instructed in learning theories, they are more likely to adopt student-centered styles of instruction (Brown, 2003). Thus, learning styles research influences teaching methods. Using only traditional methods of teaching indicates limited learning results (Gordon, 1998). Not all students learn the same way. Some believe it is possible to present a lesson in a variety of ways so that every learner is initially engaged in the learning (Brown, 2003). For example, a first grade teacher was challenged to meet the diverse needs of her 21 students. A Universal Design for Learning helped guide her planning (Howard, 2004). She began by deciding what the basic concept was that students needed to learn, and then she identified different ways to learn this idea, for example, through demonstrations, games, or shared experiences (Howard, 2004). Students of different cognitive styles perform better in different fields of learning. Learning styles are the interactions between the characteristics of the learners, the environment, and the task. Learners are motivated by one of three approaches. In the surface approach, they acquire knowledge and facts through memorization. In the achieving approach, they do specific tasks such as organizing time and using study skills to learn. In the deep approach, they interpret abstractions for enhanced understanding. Furthermore, teachers have mixed motives, and they emphasize various approaches (Harrison, 2003). At this point, there is no evidence to support neurological bases of cognitive learning styles, and while students demonstrate a preference, over time that preference may change. Teachers need to teach their students learning strategies so they can be self-regulated learners. When all communication and learning goes through the teacher, communication and learning are stifled. Teachers should be facilitators. Learners should be actively engaged. Then learning is more effective and efficient (Tsuchida, 2002). Learning strategies based on sound study skills that Tsuchida (2002) discusses include goal setting, activating background knowledge, predicting, asking if it makes sense, selectively attending, deducting and inducting, taking notes, using imagery, acting out, self-talking, cooperating, substituting, asking questions to clarify, using resources, summarizing, checking goals, evaluating one’s own strategies, imagining with a key word, grouping, and transferring.

//Integration of Learning Styles and Study Skills// A synergy for maximum benefit in learning is a consideration of both learning styles and Study skills. Only until recently, research and state requirements have been demonstrating a relevance and relationship of considering an individuals study skills to his or her learning style. In 2001, a learning styles profile that was comprehensive in several areas including modalities, interpersonal relationships, and communication skills was developed. Shortly after that, a study skills inventory was also included. Currently they are used in conjunction to maximize the quality and quantity of learning.

Program Descriptions
//Learning Styles Profile (LSP)// The Learning Styles Profile (LSP) was developed using the Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet. Thirty-nine statements completing the sentence, “I learn and remember best by…”, are given value by the respondent based upon a Likert Scale from 5 (most preferred) to 1 (least preferred) with 3 being “not sure” (Figure 1). The response cells were programmed with that value applied to the characteristics of the categories of the following charts (Figures 2-7): 1. Interpersonal Communications Chart – People, Data, and Things 2. Field Dependent/Field Independent Chart 3. Modalities Chart – Kinesthetic, Auditory, and Visual 4. Action Model Chart 5. Student/Teacher Task Relationship Chart 6. Leadership/Management Characteristics Chart

The respondent chart in each case is a preference of some combination of the areas making up the chart. Again, the results do not represent actuality, but preference. Consideration should also be given to a variation of percent of preference. The result of a respondent could be very balanced in each area, which would include a balanced preference. The Interpersonal Communications Chart (Figure 2) represents the three areas in which all individuals prefer to demonstrate competent behavior. In the interpersonal realm, competent behavior is not simply performing some intricate series of steps; but it has outcomes or consequences that make a difference with respect to some goal or problem. By adapting certain categories used in the U.S. Department of Labor's Dictionary of Occupational Titles to the broader purposes of education, this chart identifies three general categories of competencies. Two of them are exercised without any necessary interaction with people. There is competence in dealing with THINGS (psychomotor skills such as typing, writing, running, etc.). Secondly, there is competence in compiling and interpreting of DATA (manipulation of factual material). Finally, competence in dealing with PEOPLE is the desired interpersonal skill. The Field Dependent/Field Independent Chart (Figure 3) includes the two areas that are in direct correlation to how our right side and left side of the brain processes information. The Dependent Learner prefers: 1. Clear and precise learning instructions, 2. Objective-type assessment, 3. An instructor who controls the learning, 4. A socially-related learning atmosphere, 5. Organization in the learning process, 6. A well-defined job description.

The Independent Learner prefers: 1. Self-directed learning situations, 2. A choice of assessment methods, 3. The instructor as mentor or facilitator, 4. Work usually with little or no supervision, 5. Non-traditional learning settings.

The chart represents a combination of the two areas since we prefer to use both sides of our brain to some degree or the other. The Modalities Chart (Figure 4) is the most common of terms used in learning: Auditory, Kinesthetic, and Visual. After the respondent completes this chart, the characteristics of each area are noted: The Auditory Learner prefers... 1. Hearing instruction and enjoying discussion, 2. Remembering names rather than faces, 3. Remembering by speaking repetitiously, 4. Moving lips while reading silently, 5. Talking about situations and problems, 6. Having illustrations explained, 7. Expressing emotions, 8. Listening to music, 9. Sitting in the back of classroom. The Visual Learner prefers... 1. Seeing (watching) demonstrations, 2. Learning situations rather that imaging words, 3. Writing down information to keep organized, 4. Sitting in the front of the class, 5. Learning to read by sighting words, 6. Remembering faces rather than names, 7. Studying without music or movement, 8. Written examination as assessment tool. The Kinesthetic Learner prefers… 1. Remembering by doing and participating, 2. Moving (acting out) while memorizing, 3. Space, 4. Moving to music, 5. Non-verbal communication, 6. Physical activity when solving problems, 7. How-to-do books and videos, 8. Simulations, group activities, and projects as assessment.

The Action Model Chart (Figure 5) relates the respondent’s social relationship preference to his or her own emphasis in the learning cycle. A simplistic cycle of learning is used for this chart. The extremities of the axes include hear, see, think, and do in that order, with these four quadrants of characteristics: 1. Motivated Action Taker (do and hear) 2. Concerned Listener (hear and see) 3. Thoughtful Observer (see and think) 4. Active Processor (think and do)

The Teacher/Student Task Relationship Chart (Figure 6) is based upon preferred tendencies in an instructor and student interaction. Either the student will be “on task” or “off task” in the learning process. The desired reaction of the instructor is that he or she would manage the student’s learning in either case. However, tendencies are that the instructor could bring different roles into the learning process. These are defined as follows: Teacher (Manager)/Student Task Relationships 1. An observant instructor would respond to a student doing their work by being an Exhorter. 2. An observant instructor would respond to a student not doing their work as a Restorer. 3. An indifferent instructor who would not respond to a student not doing their work is a Neglector. 4. An overzealous instructor who might prescribe inappropriate learning to a student doing their work would be an Offender.

Although a couple of these identifiers leave a negative connotation, it does make one aware of possible tendencies. It should be emphasized that in each graph these areas are preferences and may not represent the actual attitudes that may suppress the initial preference. The Leadership/Management Characteristics Chart (Figure 7) also give the instructor defined areas of organization. Knowing one’s strengths and weaknesses in these areas will aid in the planning and overseeing of learning. Eleven areas were selected and they include: 1. Supervising, 2. Instructing, 3. Consulting, 4. Entertaining, 5. Persuading, 6. Mentoring, 7. Managing, 8. Leading, 9. Negotiating.

Definition of Leadership/Management Skill Areas
A person who **mentors...** works with individuals having problems affecting their life adjustment in order to advise, counsel, and/or guide them according to legal, scientific, clinical, spiritual, and/or other professional principles and advises clients on implications of analyses or diagnoses made of problems, courses of action open to deal with them, and merits of one strategy over another.

A person who **manages...** Controls, directs, and coordinates the relationships of individuals and groups under supervision; works with individuals answering questions, airing concerns and offering helpful information on how to improve behavioral problems affecting effective group functioning; maintains flow of communication without interrupting unnecessarily; respects other views and maintains rapport by not offending others sensibilities; keeps conversation on track and brings it to conclusion; and, takes responsibility for sufficient interaction of individuals and groups of individuals in order to achieve the stated objectives.

A person who **leads...** works with groups of individuals establishing policies that will directly affect their behavior in a significant manner; employs persuasion techniques to influence and motivate groups of individuals to trust in his/her judgment about the priorities and direction the group should take; uses symbols familiar to the group to promote adherence to his/her policies and controls any serious resistance with firm sanctions acknowledged by the group to he lawful extensions of leader's authority; and maintains group solidarity while accomplishing objectives with group cooperation.

A person who **negotiates...** bargains and discusses on a formal basis as a representative of one side of a transaction for advantages in resources, rights, privileges, and/or contractual obligations, "giving and taking" within the limits provided by authority or within the framework or the perceived requirements and integrity of a program.

A person who **instructs...** Teaches subject matter to others or trains others through explanation, demonstration, and testing.

A person who **supervises...** determines and/or interprets work procedures for a group of workers; assigns specific duties to them (delineating prescribed and discretionary content); maintains harmonious relations among them: evaluates performance (both prescribed and discretionary); a promotes efficiency and other organizational values; and, makes decisions on procedural and technical levels.

A person who **consults...** serves as a source of technical information and gives such information or provides ideas to define, clarify, enlarge upon, or sharpen procedures, capabilities, or product specifications.

A person who **entertains...** amuses or diverts or distracts individuals and/or audiences or lightens a situation.

A person who **persuades...** influences others in favor of a product, service, or point of view by talks or demonstrations.

A person who **communicates...** sends or transmits verbal or nonverbal signals, which if received by the intended party are decoded and translated into general or specific messages that serve as sources of information about the sender. The recipient of the message can respond to the original stimulus immediately, or not at all, or at some point in the future depending upon the meaning which he or she attaches to the content of the message. The forms of communication are verbal or nonverbal. The two forms of verbal communication are spoken and written. The communication process is dependent upon another person being capable of seeing, hearing, touching, and comprehending the nature of the symbols employed to transmit the message.

A person who **serves...** Attends to the needs or requests of people or to the expressed or implicit wishes of people and immediate response is involved.

A person who **helps...** attends to the work assignment, instructions, or orders of supervisor and immediate response or verbal exchange is required unless clarification of instruction is needed.

These six charts in the Learning Styles Profile give comprehensive perspective to the instructor as well as the student in the self-actualization process, which is paramount in the learning process. An understanding of different learning styles and management of learning bring cohesiveness in the development of meaningful learning experiences.

//The Study Skills Inventory (SSI)// The Study Skills Inventory (SSI) was developed in a similar manner as the LSP except the outcome included results in the following sixteen study skills (Figure 8): 1. Time-Management 2. Note-taking 3. Reading 4. Listening 5. Test-taking 6. Written Communications 7. Stress 8. Career-Oriented 9. Memory 10. Learning Behavior 11. Critical Thinking 12. Research 13. Technology 14. Decision Making 15. Life Skills 16. Health

The SSI was designed to be used twice; that is, before (Figure 9) and at the conclusion of a course program that included the training in study skills (Figure 10). The respondent is asked after the first time to complete a “Personal Reaction” to the results in each area by answering basic questions, as follows: 1. Did the score reflect a strength or weakness? 2. What actions would be necessary for you to take in order for you to improve even more in the category?

Then at the end of the course, the respondent completes the same inventory and completes a “Personal Reflection” of each study skill by answering the following questions: 1. Was there a significant change in the scores? 2. Did you show an improvement in the category? 3. How are you going to improve and develop lifelong learning habits in the category?

When the LSP and SSI have been completed and evaluated, then, it is at this time that the diagnosis and prescription for learning for the respondent can begin.

//Integration of Programs// Once a learning segment has been established, the study skill that would best accommodate the learning can be determined. Next, consider how well the respondent is prepared for that study skill. In addition, determine if the study skill could be altered considering the respondents learning styles. This approach maximizes both the amount of time it takes to learn and the amount of material that is to be learned, satisfying the need for quality and quantity of learning.

//Diagnosis and Prescription for Success// It has often been said, “Nothing succeeds like success”. Much like the medical doctor diagnoses our ailments and prescribes the appropriate medications; teachers too look to answers for learning problems and must diagnose learning problems and prescribe the best solutions for the students’ needs. So, it should always be asked… What teaching methods are best for which learning style? What are the study skills that need to be reinforced? How would the combination of learning with style and skill result so that, the quality and quantity of learning is maximized?